Ubuntu – Full disk encryption with dm-crypt (without LUKS)

You could put the password in a file and re-use that with the --key-file parameter. Using a random keyfile instead of a plaintext passphrase in that setup may be preferable.

echo -n password > pwfile
for luks in md1 md2 md3
do
    cryptsetup luksOpen --key-file=pwfile /dev/"$luks" luks"$luks"
done

Personally I used a slightly different approach with LUKS encrypted keyfiles:

• https://wiki.gentoo.org/wiki/Custom_Initramfs#Encrypted_Keyfile
• https://wiki.gentoo.org/wiki/Custom_Initramfs/Examples

In this setup, the single passphrase unlocks a keyfile store which contains random keys for various other LUKS containers. This is particularly useful for /boot on USB setups, so /boot can't be tampered with and a hardware keylogger alone is not sufficient to get the keys for the internal disks.

The answer (as I now know): concurrency.

In short: My sequential write, either using dd or when copying a file (like... in daily use), becomes a pseudo-random write (bad) because four threads are working concurrently on writing the encrypted data to the block device after concurrent encryption (good).

Mitigation (for "older" kernels)

The negative effect can be mitigated by increasing the amount of queued requests in the IO scheduler queue like this:

echo 4096 | sudo tee /sys/block/sdc/queue/nr_requests

In my case this nearly triples (~56MB/s) the throughput for the 4GB random data test explained in my question. Of course, the performance still falls short 100MB/s compared to unencrypted IO.

Investigation

Multicore blktrace

I further investigated the problematic scenario in which a btrfs is placed on a top of a LUKS encrypted block device. To show me what write instructions are issued to the actual block device, I used blktrace like this:

sudo blktrace -a write -d /dev/sdc -o - | blkparse -b 1 -i - | grep -w D

What this does is (as far as I was able to comprehend) trace IO request to /dev/sdc which are of type "write", then parse this to human readable output but further restrict the output to action "D", which is (according to man blkparse) "IO issued to driver".

The result was something like this (see about 5000 lines of output of the multicore log):

8,32   0    32732   127.148240056     3  D   W 38036976 + 240 [ksoftirqd/0]
8,32   0    32734   127.149958221     3  D   W 38038176 + 240 [ksoftirqd/0]
8,32   0    32736   127.160257521     3  D   W 38038416 + 240 [ksoftirqd/0]
8,32   1    30264   127.186905632    13  D   W 35712032 + 240 [ksoftirqd/1]
8,32   1    30266   127.196561599    13  D   W 35712272 + 240 [ksoftirqd/1]
8,32   1    30268   127.209431760    13  D   W 35713872 + 240 [ksoftirqd/1]

• Column 1: major,minor of the block device
• Column 2: CPU ID
• Column 3: sequence number
• Column 4: time stamp
• Column 5: process ID
• Column 6: action
• Column 7: RWBS data (type, sector, length)

This is a snipped of the output produced while dd'ing the 4GB random data onto the mounted filesystem. It is clear that at least two processes are involved. The remaining log shows that all four processors are actually working on it. Sadly, the write requests are not ordered anymore. While CPU0 is writing somewhere around the 38038416th sector, CPU1, which is scheduled afterwards, is writing somewhere around the 35713872nd sector. That's bad.

Singlecore blktrace

I did the same experiment after disabling multi-threading and disabling the second core of my CPU. Of course, only one processor is involved in writing to the stick. But more importantly, the write request are properly sequential, which is why the full write performance of ~170MB/s is achieved in the otherwise same setup.

Have a look at about 5000 lines of output in the singlecore log.

Discussion

Now that I know the cause and the proper google search terms, the information about this problem is bubbling up to the surface. As it turns out, I am not the first one to notice.

• Four years ago, a patch brought multi-threaded dm-crypt to the kernel. That commit pretty much matches my findings exactly.
• Two years ago, patches were discussed improving dm-crypt performance, including re-ordering of write requests.
• One year ago, the topic was still discussed.
• Recently, a patch enabling sorting for dm-crypt was finally commited to the kernel.
• There is an interesting email with performance tests (which I did not read very much of) concerning this phenomenon.

Fixed in current kernels (>=4.0.2)

Because I (later) found the kernel commit obviously targeted at this exact problem, I wanted to try an updated kernel. [After compiling it myself and then finding out it's already in debian/sid] It turns out that the problem is indeed fixed. I don't know the exact kernel release in which the fix appeared, but the original commit will give clues to anyone interested.

For the record:

$ uname -a
Linux t440p 4.0.0-1-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 4.0.2-1 (2015-05-11) x86_64 GNU/Linux
$ dd if=/home/schlimmchen/Documents/random of=/mnt/dd-test bs=1M conv=fsync
4294967296 bytes (4.3 GB) copied, 29.7559 s, 144 MB/s

A hat tip to Mikulas Patocka, who authored the commit.