Devices – Open Console for Default File Descriptors

First, note that the syntax for closing is 5>&- or 6<&-, depending on whether the file descriptor is being read for writing or for reading. There seems to be a typo or formatting glitch in that blog post.

Here's the commented script.

exec 5>/tmp/foo       # open /tmp/foo for writing, on fd 5
exec 6</tmp/bar       # open /tmp/bar for reading, on fd 6
cat <&6 |             # call cat, with its standard input connected to
                      # what is currently fd 6, i.e., /tmp/bar
while read a; do      # 
  echo $a >&5         # write to fd 5, i.e., /tmp/foo
done                  # 

There's no closing here. Because all the inputs and outputs are going to the same place in this simple example, the use of extra file descriptors is not necessary. You could write

cat </tmp/bar |
while read a; do
  echo $a
done >/tmp/foo

Using explicit file descriptors becomes useful when you want to write to multiple files in turn. For example, consider a script that outputs data to a data output file and logging data to a log file and possibly error messages as well. That means three output channels: one for data, one for logs and one for errors. Since there are only two standard descriptors for output, a third is needed. You can call exec to open the output files:

exec >data-file
exec 3>log-file
echo "first line of data"
echo "this is a log line" >&3
…
if something_bad_happens; then echo error message >&2; fi
exec >&-  # close the data output file
echo "output file closed" >&3

The remark about efficiency comes in when you have a redirection in a loop, like this (assume the file is empty to begin with):

while …; do echo $a >>/tmp/bar; done

At each iteration, the program opens /tmp/bar, seeks to the end of the file, appends some data and closes the file. It is more efficient to open the file once and for all:

while …; do echo $a; done >/tmp/bar

When there are multiple redirections happening at different times, calling exec to perform redirections rather than wrapping a block in a redirection becomes useful.

exec >/tmp/bar
while …; do echo $a; done

You'll find several other examples of redirection by browsing the io-redirection tag on this site.

According to the kernel documentation, /proc/sys/fs/file-max is the maximum, total, global number of file descriptors the kernel will allocate before choking. This is the kernel's limit, not your current user's. So you can open 590432, provided you're alone on an idle system (single-user mode, no daemons running).

Note that the documentation is out of date: the file has been /proc/sys/fs/file-max for a long time. Thanks to Martin Jambon for pointing this out.

The difference between soft and hard limits is answered here, on SE. You can raise or lower a soft limit as an ordinary user, provided you don't overstep the hard limit. You can also lower a hard limit (but you can't raise it again for that process). As the superuser, you can raise and lower both hard and soft limits. The dual limit scheme is used to enforce system policies, but also allow ordinary users to set temporary limits for themselves and later change them.

Note that if you try to lower a hard limit below the soft limit (and you're not the superuser), you'll get EINVAL back (Invalid Argument).

So, in your particular case, ulimit (which is the same as ulimit -Sf) says you don't have a soft limit on the size of files written by the shell and its subprocesses. (that's probably a good idea in most cases)

Your other invocation, ulimit -Hn reports on the -n limit (maximum number of open file descriptors), not the -f limit, which is why the soft limit seems higher than the hard limit. If you enter ulimit -Hf you'll also get unlimited.