Ntpd vs. systemd-timesyncd – How to achieve reliable NTP syncing

Note: Although NTP had this idea of a nanokernel which could be used to patch OS's that don't use NTP, in Linux in particular is not in this case. The NTP code is in the kernel itself as you allude to in question 1.

0: How does this Nanokernel manage to deliver an accuracy less than the system clock tick (such as ns accuracy)?

Accuracy greater than system clock tick accuracy is done by relying on the aggregated accuracy of other computer(s) or device(s). The system clock tick gives how often this computer's tick is updated. However number of places of accuracy is defined in the particular software used, such as the OS which often relies on POSIX standards. POSIX standards for some time structures go down to nanosecond accuracy as you mention.

To see how we can get accuracy greater than system clock accuracy, suppose on my computer I have attached to it a GPS device or some sort of fancy atomic clock. Whenever someone asks me what time it is, I just consult that clock and give that out.

If ntp is in the kernel as it is for Linux, this GPS device time rather than the system clock time can be used in gettimeofday() calls.

As for the computer's clock, sure, I compare time I get with the GPS or atomic clock with what the computer and when it gets more than a tick away, I arrange to adjust it back using adjtime() described in the answer to question 3.

1. If and when was this modification brought into the main line Linux kernel?

The NTP Nanokernel idea was introduced in ntp version 4.0 which goes back at least to 1998. I think it was in the Linux kernel in some form since at least 2.2.36. linux github logs reports Oct 1, 2006 as when the ntp code was segregated into its own file ntp.c in the kernel. But of course it is there from before.

In sum, none of this is new.

2. How does it use the cycle counter, because as far as I'm aware it does not deliver an interrupt, so does the Nanokernel continuously read the processor registry value containing the current counter?

It uses this like any other program would read a program variable. When code using it runs and the value is needed, say because it has gotten new information back, it reads the variable and updates it. If someone needs to get the time, it uses it in that calculation too. So unless the code was written in a really stupid way (and I'm pretty sure it wasn't), no, it doesn't "continuously read the processor registry value" any more than is necessary.

3. Finally does NTPD ever modify the CPU clock frequency, or does it just maintain a software clock where calculated clock adjustment is applied?

It uses the system call adjtime() which goes back to even before 1998. What adjtime does is arrange periodically for the clock counter to miss an increment to slow down, or to increment by more than 1 to speed up.