command linels
In my Ubuntu version the man ls has the next info about –directory:
list directory entries instead of contents, and do not dereference symbolic links
So I'm a little confused how it works.
I used the command ls --directory and I expected a list with all directories but instead I got .
So what exactly does ls --directory or ls -d do?
I recommend you read What are directories, if everything on Linux is a file? for more in-depth knowledge on directory structure, history, and terminology of how directories work and its elements (inode, dirent structure, etc.), although it's not required for this question.
Looking at format of directories manual page from 1971 edition of UNIX programmer's manual, we see that . and .. were already there:
By convention, the first two entries in each directory are for "." and “..“. The first is an entry for the directory itself.
As for their significance, an answer can be found on Panos's answer. Ken Thompson explained how .. came about in the 1989 interview:
Every time we made a directory, by convention we put it in another directory called directory - directory, which was dd. Its name was dd and that all the users directories and in fact most other directories, users maintain their own directory systems, had pointers back to dd, and dd got shortened into �dot-dot,� and dd was for directory-directory. It was the place back to where you could to get to all the other directories in the system to maintain this spaghetti bowl
Naturally, . as you can guess stands for d or short of directory. Such directory itself naturally shares same inode number as the directory's actual name. Now, this still doesn't explain why the directory . is linked to itself, but I have couple ideas.
0. Unix Philosophy:
In the 1996 book "UNIX Internals: The NEw Frontiers" by Uresh Vahalia, in Chapter 8, page 222 it is stated:
Unix supports thenotion of a current working directory for each process, maintained as part of the process state. This allows users to refer to files by their relative pathnames,which are interpreted relative to the current directory.
Considering that a directory is just a special file, we need consistent relative filename to refer to directory itself and that would be a special filename ., which evolved from d, which was short for directory.
1. Technical advantages
Main advantage I could think of is for the system to simplify the inode lookup, and thus metadata information. Since directory already has an entry containing . with the same inode, there's no need to query via full path. Same goes for programming. Consider a very simple implementation of ls. There I use getcwd() function to obtain current working directory path, and then pass it to opendir(). Or I could throw away getcwd() and just use opendir('.') directly. In the day of old PDP-11 terminals where memory size was in few kilobytes, saving up on syscall overhead would be crucial.
2. User convenience:
Consider the following example:
mv ../filename.txt .
In the presentation by Hendrik Jan Thomassen it's been mentioned that original Unix commands were short due to old terminal keys being hard to press, thus it was a physical effort to actually type commands all day long. If you are deep into directory tree, retyping full path of the current working directory would be tedious. Of course, mv could be implemented with assuming that when we do mv <file> we imply destination as "current working directory". I can only guess as to why mv <original> <new> prevailed, perhaps due to influence of other programming languages of the day.
3. Improving over MULTICS:
Note: I've never worked on MULTICS myself, so this is based on reading online sources only
According to 1986 MULTICS manual on Pathnames:
A relative pathname may begin with one or more less-than characters ("<").
The > character is used on MULTICS as path separator (like / on Linux). Arguably this may look confusing. Thus, ./ when referencing a command is arguably clearer - we're referencing a filename that is located in current working directory.
This may be beneficial for other commands. It's well known how to create a file on Unix/Linux: touch ./file. On MULTICS, according to swenson.org is done via an or add_name command:
cd foo
r 18:03 0.041 1
an foo bar
r 18:03 0.077 3
ls foo
Directories = 1.
sma foo
bar
r 18:03 0.065 0
On side note, there's obvious similarity when it comes to .. : navigating up one directory is done via cwd <<.
4. Referencing executables
If you're running scripts on daily basis, you know well ./script.sh syntax. The why of it is simple: the way shell works is that it looks for executable files in PATH variable so when you provide ./ it doesn't have to look anywhere. The magic of PATH variable is what makes you use echo instead of /bin/echo or other very lengthy paths. Now lets say you don't have that script.sh in your path, and it's there in your current working directory. What do you do now ? Type /very/long/path/to/the/executable/this/typing/gets/exhausting/on/PDP-11/finally/script.sh ? This will throw away all concept of Unix simplicity ! So going back to the Unix philosophy, it also aligns with the principle of elegant design/simplicity.
Of course, some folks want to add . to PATH, but this is actually a very bad practice, so don't do that.
side note: The special case of .. and . pointing to the same is inode 2 - the / dir , and it makes sense since it is highest point in directory tree. Of course, .. being NULL could also work, but it's more elegant to make it point to / itself.
As Gilles properly pointed out (and referenced by George Udosen) , the link count for a directory starts with 2 ( .. for parent directory and .), with all additional link being a subdirectory:
# new directory has link count of 2
$ stat --format=%h .
2
# Adding subdirectories increases link count
$ mkdir subdir1
$ stat --format=%h .
3
$ mkdir subdir2
$ stat --format=%h .
4
# Adding files doesn't make difference
$ cp /etc/passwd passwd.copy
$ stat --format=%h .
4
# Count of links for root
$ stat --format=%h /
25
# Count of subdirectories, minus .
$ find / -maxdepth 1 -type d | wc -l
24
Intuitively, links of a directory being subdirectories only - makes sense, since hard links are of the same time as original file. Except, these aren't exactly hard links - hard links create a filename that points to same data. By that definition, a hard link to directory would contain same data, i.e. contain same listing of files. This would lead to loops in filesystem or lots of orphan files if all hard links to directory were removed. For that reason, hard link creation is not allowed for directories, and to use Gilles's phrasing from another question (which I recommend you read) "...[i]n fact, many filesystems do have hard links on directories, but only in a very disciplined way..." and those are the special cases of . and .. directories.
Now, question becomes what is actually meant by "links" in context of directories ? TL;DR: directory structure is a tree, and Links here means number of child nodes for each tree item (with each leaf, or directory without subdirs, having only 2 links). In particular, ext3 and ext4 use HTree and xfs uses B+ tree
In the end, the reason why . is linked to itself is simply because it's good design. Original authors of Unix may have been working under technological constraints of their time, but they were some of the most brilliant minds of the day, or as often they're called "Wizards", and they did things for a reason.
Best Answer
The current directory is represented as
.so that's whatls -dis listing.The directories inside the current directory are contents of the directory, and are therefore not shown with this option.
I use the
-doption in an alias to display hidden files and directoriesWithout
-d, this will list out the contents of the hidden directories too, which isn't what I want.Another use for it is when I want to see metadata of a directory using the
-loption, not its contents:If you want a list of directories in the current directory you can use